Red Algae Research Articles

Edible-algae base composite film containing gelatin for food packaging from macroalgae, Gracilaroid (Gracilaria fisheri).

Conventional petroleum-based packaging films cause severe environmental problems. In this work bio-edible film as a safe to replace petroleum-based polymers was introduced. A food application for edible sachets and a composite edible film (EF) from marine algae, Gracilaria fisheri (GF) extract were proposed. Carbohydrates were the most prevalent component in fresh GF fronds. Under neutral conditions at 90 °C for 40 min, the extract's structure was determined by FTIR to be a carrageenan-like polysaccharide. Glycerol was the best plasticizer for EF formation since it had the highest tensile strength (TS). The integration of gelatin into the algal composite film with gelatin (CFG) was validated by significant. The best casting temperatures for 2 h were 70 and 100 °C among the four tested temperatures (25, 60, 70, and 100 °C). Temperatures did not result in significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in any character (color values, TS, water vapor permeability, oxygen transmission, thickness, and water activity), except elongation at break. Visually, the CFG had a slightly yellow appearance. The best-to-worst order of film stability in the three tested solvents was oil, distilled water (DW), and ethanol. Its stability in ethanol (0-100%), temperature of DW (30-100 °C), and pH (3-7 in DW) demonstrated inverse variations with the concentration or different conditions, except for pH 8-10 in DW. All treatments were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) different. The novel material made from polysaccharides from algae, G. fisheri, was used to improve EF. The edible sachet application was plausible from the EF. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Community structure of endophytic bacteria of Sargassum thubergii in the intertidal zone of Qingdao in China

Endophytic bacteria are one of the symbiotic microbial groups closely related to host algae. However, less research on the endophytic bacteria of marine algae. In this study, the endophytic bacterial community of Sargassum thunbergii was investigated using the culture method and high-throughput sequencing. Thirty-nine endophytic bacterial strains, belonging to two phyla, five genera and sixteen species, were isolated, and Firmicutes, Bacillus and Metabacillus indicus were the dominant taxa at the phylum, genus and species level, respectively. High-throughput sequencing revealed 39 phyla and 574 genera of endophytic bacteria, and the dominant phylum was Proteobacteria, while the dominant genus was Ralstonia. The results also indicated that the endophytic bacteria of S. thunbergii included various groups with nitrogen fixation, salt tolerance, pollutant degradation, and antibacterial properties but also contained some pathogenic bacteria. Additionally, the endophytic bacterial community shared a large number of groups with the epiphytic bacteria and bacteria in the surrounding seawater, but the three groups of samples could be clustered separately. In conclusion, there are a variety of functional endophytic bacteria living in S. thunbergii, and the internal condition of algae is a selective factor for the formation of endophytic bacterial communities. This study enriched the database of endophytic bacteria in marine macroalgae, paving the way for further understanding of the interrelationships between endophytic bacteria, macroalgae, and the environment.

Anti-biofilm activity of marine algae-derived bioactive compounds

A large number of microbial species tend to communicate and produce biofilm which causes numerous microbial infections, antibiotic resistance, and economic problems across different industries. Therefore, advanced anti-biofilms are required with novel attributes and targets, such as quorum sensing communication system. Meanwhile, quorum sensing inhibitors as promising anti-biofilm molecules result in the inhibition of particular phenotype expression blocking of cell-to-cell communication, which would be more acceptable than conventional strategies. Many natural products are identified as anti-biofilm agents from different plants, microorganisms, and marine extracts. Marine algae are promising sources of broadly novel compounds with anti-biofilm activity. Algae extracts and their metabolites such as sulfated polysaccharides (fucoidan), carotenoids (zeaxanthin and lutein), lipid and fatty acids (γ-linolenic acid and linoleic acid), and phlorotannins can inhibit the cell attachment, reduce the cell growth, interfere in quorum sensing pathway by blocking related enzymes, and disrupt extracellular polymeric substances. In this review, the mechanisms of biofilm formation, quorum sensing pathway, and recently identified marine algae natural products as anti-biofilm agents will be discussed.

Nitrogen-fixing organelle in a marine alga.

Symbiotic interactions were key to the evolution of chloroplast and mitochondria organelles, which mediate carbon and energy metabolism in eukaryotes. Biological nitrogen fixation, the reduction of abundant atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) to biologically available ammonia, is a key metabolic process performed exclusively by prokaryotes. Candidatus Atelocyanobacterium thalassa, or UCYN-A, is a metabolically streamlined N2-fixing cyanobacterium previously reported to be an endosymbiont of a marine unicellular alga. Here we show that UCYN-A has been tightly integrated into algal cell architecture and organellar division and that it imports proteins encoded by the algal genome. These are characteristics of organelles and show that UCYN-A has evolved beyond endosymbiosis and functions as an early evolutionary stage N2-fixing organelle, or "nitroplast."

The nitroplast: A nitrogen-fixing organelle.

A bacterial endosymbiont of marine algae evolved to an organelle.

Structure and replication cycle of a virus infecting climate-modulating alga Emiliania huxleyi.

The globally distributed marine alga Emiliania huxleyi has cooling effect on the Earth's climate. The population density of E. huxleyi is restricted by Nucleocytoviricota viruses, including E. huxleyi virus 201 (EhV-201). Despite the impact of E. huxleyi viruses on the climate, there is limited information about their structure and replication. Here, we show that the dsDNA genome inside the EhV-201 virion is protected by an inner membrane, capsid, and outer membrane. EhV-201 virions infect E. huxleyi by using fivefold vertices to bind to and fuse the virus' inner membrane with the cell plasma membrane. Progeny virions assemble in the cytoplasm at the surface of endoplasmic reticulum-derived membrane segments. Genome packaging initiates synchronously with the capsid assembly and completes through an aperture in the forming capsid. The genome-filled capsids acquire an outer membrane by budding into intracellular vesicles. EhV-201 infection induces a loss of surface protective layers from E. huxleyi cells, which enables the continuous release of virions by exocytosis.

Thyroid Hormone Receptor Agonistic and Antagonistic Activity of Newly Synthesized Dihydroxylated Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers: An In Vitro and In Silico Coactivator Recruitment Study

Dihydroxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (DiOH-PBDEs) could be the metabolites of PBDEs of some organisms or the natural products of certain marine bacteria and algae. OH-PBDEs may demonstrate binding affinity to thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) and can disrupt the functioning of the systems modulated by TRs. However, the thyroid hormone disruption mechanism of diOH-PBDEs remains elusive due to the absence of diOH-PBDEs standards. This investigation explores the potential disruptive effects of OH/diOH-PBDEs on thyroid hormones via competitive binding and coactivator recruitment with TRα and TRβ. At levels of 5000 nM and 25,000 nM, 6-OH-BDE-47 demonstrated significant recruitment of steroid receptor coactivator (SRC), whereas none of the diOH-PBDEs exhibited SRC recruitment within the range of 0.32–25,000 nM. AutoDock CrankPep (ADCP) simulations suggest that the conformation of SRC and TR–ligand complexes, particularly their interaction with Helix 12, rather than binding affinity, plays a pivotal role in ligand agonistic activity. 6,6′-diOH-BDE-47 displayed antagonistic activity towards both TRα and TRβ, while the antagonism of 3,5-diOH-BDE-100 for TRα and TRβ was concentration-dependent. 3,5-diOH-BDE-17 and 3,5-diOH-BDE-51 exhibited no discernible agonistic or antagonistic activities. Molecular docking analysis revealed that the binding energy of 3,3′,5-triiodo-L-thyronine (T3) surpassed that of OH/diOH-PBDEs. 3,5-diOH-BDE-100 exhibited the highest binding energy, whereas 6,6′-diOH-BDE-47 displayed the lowest. These findings suggest that the structural determinants influencing the agonistic and antagonistic activities of halogen phenols may be more intricate than previously proposed, involving factors beyond high-brominated PBDEs or hydroxyl group and bromine substitutions. It is likely that the agonistic or antagonistic propensities of OH/diOH-PBDEs are instigated by protein conformational changes rather than considerations of binding energy.

Porphyran Attenuates Neuronal Loss in the Hippocampal CA1 Subregion Induced by Ischemia and Reperfusion in Gerbils by Inhibiting NLRP3 Inflammasome-Mediated Neuroinflammation

Porphyran, a sulfated polysaccharide found in various species of marine red algae, has been demonstrated to exhibit diverse bioactivities, including anti-inflammatory effects. However, the protective effects of porphyran against cerebral ischemia and reperfusion (IR) injury have not been investigated. The aim of this study was to examine the neuroprotective effects of porphyran against brain IR injury and its underlying mechanisms using a gerbil model of transient forebrain ischemia (IR in the forebrain), which results in pyramidal cell (principal neuron) loss in the cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) subregion of the hippocampus on day 4 after IR. Porphyran (25 and 50 mg/kg) was orally administered daily for one week prior to IR. Pretreatment with 50 mg/kg of porphyran, but not 25 mg/kg, significantly attenuated locomotor hyperactivity and protected pyramidal cells located in the CA1 area from IR injury. The pretreatment with 50 mg/kg of porphyran significantly suppressed the IR-induced activation and proliferation of microglia in the CA1 subregion. Additionally, the pretreatment significantly inhibited the overexpressions of nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-containing family, pyrin domain-containing protein-3 (NLRP3) inflammasome complex, and pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin 1 beta and interleukin 18) induced by IR in the CA1 subregion. Overall, our findings suggest that porphyran exerts neuroprotective effects against brain IR injury, potentially by reducing the reaction (activation) and proliferation of microglia and reducing NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation.

Phytochemical Characterization and Anticancer Screening of Cladophora goensis and Cladophora glomerata Extracts

Background: Cladophora goensis and Cladophora glomerata has been widely identified in the Indian Oceans. Marine algae have been identified as potential pharmacological agents useful in the treatment of diabetes, hypertension, infections, and cancers. Objectives: The present study aimed to evaluate the phytochemicals in C. goensis and C. glomerata using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS), and to study the molecular interactions with cancer-related proteins using molecular docking techniques. Materials and methods: GC-MS analysis was done using electron impact ionization at 70eV and the data was evaluated using total ion count for compound identification and quantification. AutoDock 4.0 version was used for the molecular docking analysis. Results: The methanolic extracts of algae when subjected to GC-MS analysis, 19 compounds from C. goensis and 11 phytocompounds from C. glomerata were identified. The significant molecular interactions of phytochemicals of C. goensis (6-nitro-3 H-quinazolin-4-one, Isoquinoline, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-7-methoxy-2-methyl-8-(phenyl methoxy) and 9-Decen-1-ol, pentafluropropionate) and C. glomerata (phytol, palmitic acid, and octadec-9-enoic acid) against human epidermal growth factor receptor (4WRG), poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (4UND), human estrogen receptor alpha ligand-binding domain (3ERT), human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha ligand-binding domain (3VI8), and human topoisomerase (1EJ9) have been demonstrated. Conclusion: The phytochemicals of methanolic extracts of C. goensis and C. glomerata showed potential interactions with cancer-related proteins.

Hot springs viruses at Yellowstone National Park have ancient origins and are adapted to thermophilic hosts

Geothermal springs house unicellular red algae in the class Cyanidiophyceae that dominate the microbial biomass at these sites. Little is known about host-virus interactions in these environments. We analyzed the virus community associated with red algal mats in three neighboring habitats (creek, endolithic, soil) at Lemonade Creek, Yellowstone National Park (YNP), USA. We find that despite proximity, each habitat houses a unique collection of viruses, with the giant viruses, Megaviricetes, dominant in all three. The early branching phylogenetic position of genes encoded on metagenome assembled virus genomes (vMAGs) suggests that the YNP lineages are of ancient origin and not due to multiple invasions from mesophilic habitats. The existence of genomic footprints of adaptation to thermophily in the vMAGs is consistent with this idea. The Cyanidiophyceae at geothermal sites originated ca. 1.5 Bya and are therefore relevant to understanding biotic interactions on the early Earth.

Laboratory‐scale preparation of prostaglandins using acetone powder of the red alga Gracilaria vermiculophylla

SummaryThe red alga Gracilaria vermiculophylla is a prostaglandin (PG)‐producing macroalga. The alga is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids with 20 carbon atoms, mainly arachidonic acid (AA), which is a precursor of PGs. The purpose of the present study was to analyze the ability of the red alga to produce PGs using acetone powder as the crude enzyme prepared from the alga. The acetone powder (250 mg) was incubated with different amounts of exogenous AA (0.1–4 mg). For the determination of PG contents, 5 μL of a sample solution (5 mL in water) consisting of acetone powder and AA was injected into the HPLC column. For PG analysis, an HPLC system connected with a mass spectrometer was used. Results of the study showed that the released PGs from incubation of acetone powder and AA consisted of PGE2, 15‐keto‐PGE2, 15‐hydroperoxy‐PGE2, PGA2, and PGF2α. The capability of the crude enzyme prepared from the red alga to produce PGs was affected by available oxygen and AA concentrations. The crude enzyme (250 mg) was capable of producing 164 and 141 μg of PGE2 and 15‐keto‐PGE2, respectively, from incubation with 250 μg of AA. This in vitro method could be a simple way to provide PGs in the laboratory.

The Marine Alga Sargassum horneri Is a Functional Food with High Bioactivity

Functional food factors can play a preventive and therapeutic role in several human diseases. The marine alga Sargassum horneri (S. horneri) has restorative effects in several types of metabolic disorders, including osteoporosis, diabetes, inflammatory conditions, and cancer cell growth. Osteoporosis is widely recognized as a major public health problem. Bone loss associated with ageing and diabetic states was prevented through the intake of bioactive compounds from S. horneri water extract in vivo by stimulating osteoblastic bone formation and inhibiting osteoclastic bone resorption in vitro. The intake of S. horneri water extract was found to have preventive effects on diabetic findings with an increase in serum glucose and lipid components. Furthermore, the S. horneri component has been shown to suppress adipogenesis from rat bone marrow cells and inflammatory conditions in vitro. Notably, the growth of bone metastatic human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells, which induce bone loss with osteolytic effects, was suppressed through culturing with the S. horneri water extract component in vitro. The S. horneri component, which has a molecular weight of less than 1000, was found to suppress the activation of NF-κB signaling by tumor necrosis factor-α, a cytokine associated with inflammation, in osteoblastic cells and macrophage RAW264.7 cells in vitro, suggesting a molecular mechanism. The bioactive component of S. horneri may play a multifunctional role in the prevention and treatment of metabolic disorders. This review outlines the advanced knowledge of the biological activity of the aqueous extract components of S. horneri and discusses the development of health supplements using this material.

Recent Progress of Carrageenan-Based Composite Films in Active and Intelligent Food Packaging Applications.

Recently, as concerns about petrochemical-derived polymers increase, interest in biopolymer-based materials is increasing. Undoubtedly, biopolymers are a better alternative to solve the problem of synthetic polymer-based plastics for packaging purposes. There are various types of biopolymers in nature, and mostly polysaccharides are used in this regard. Carrageenan is a hydrophilic polysaccharide extracted from red algae and has recently attracted great interest in the development of food packaging films. Carrageenan is known for its excellent film-forming properties, high compatibility and good carrier properties. Carrageenan is readily available and low cost, making it a good candidate as a polymer matrix base material for active and intelligent food packaging films. The carrageenan-based packaging film lacks mechanical, barrier, and functional properties. Thus, the physical and functional properties of carrageenan-based films can be enhanced by blending this biopolymer with functional compounds and nanofillers. Various types of bioactive ingredients, such as nanoparticles, natural extracts, colorants, and essential oils, have been incorporated into the carrageenan-based film. Carrageenan-based functional packaging film was found to be useful for extending the shelf life of packaged foods and tracking spoilage. Recently, there has been plenty of research work published on the potential of carrageenan-based packaging film. Therefore, this review discusses recent advances in carrageenan-based films for applications in food packaging. The preparation and properties of carrageenan-based packaging films were discussed, as well as their application in real-time food packaging. The latest discussion on the potential of carrageenan as an alternative to traditionally used synthetic plastics may be helpful for further research in this field.

Antibacterial Activities of the Algal Bromophenol Methylrhodomelol Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Methylrhodomelol (1: ) is a bromophenol from the red alga Vertebrata lanosa that has been associated with antimicrobial properties. The aim of the current study was, therefore, to assess the antimicrobial potential of this compound in more detail against the gram-negative pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. 1: exerted weak bacteriostatic activity against different strains when grown in minimal medium, whereas other phenolics were inactive. In addition, 1: (35 and 10 µg/mL) markedly enhanced the susceptibility of multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa toward the aminoglycoside gentamicin, while it did not affect the viability of Vero kidney cells up to 100 µM. Finally, pyoverdine release was reduced in bacteria treated at sub-inhibitory concentration, but no effect on other virulence factors was observed. Transcriptome analysis of treated versus untreated P. aeruginosa indicated an interference of 1: with bacterial carbon and energy metabolism, which was corroborated by RT-qPCR and decreased ATP-levels in treated bacteria. In summary, the current study characterized the antibacterial properties of methylrhodomelol, revealed its potential as an adjuvant to standard antibiotics, and generated a hypothesis on its mode of action.

Seaweed and the applicability of freeze drying techniques

Seaweed, often considered an overlooked resource, are marine algae with many applications in various industries. The many species of seaweed possess a range of nutritional values, environmental benefits, and their versatility make them an attractive subject of research and development. One promising method for preserving and utilising seaweed effectively is freeze drying. This review explores the world of seaweed, its properties, applications, and the potential of freeze-drying techniques in harnessing the above benefits. The review examines the freeze-drying process and discusses its applicability and advantages in preserving seaweed as a sustainable resource. The discussion also includes the diverse uses of seaweed, from culinary applications to pharmaceuticals and beyond, highlighting the potential of freeze-drying to unlock seaweed’s full potential

Beta diversity and regionalization of the western Atlantic marine biota

AbstractAimUnderstanding the factors determining marine community variations is important for biogeography and conservation. Beta diversity is a metric for mapping species composition variations between communities and regionalizing biota. Ecoregions are commonly used for regionalization, but their empirical testing has been limited. Our aim is to map marine species composition variations in the Western Atlantic, identify variables related to these variations, and regionalize areas based on community distribution. Additionally, we test whether currently proposed ecoregions represent unique biota units and specific environmental conditions.LocationWestern Atlantic Ocean.TaxonVertebrates, invertebrates and algae.MethodsWe constructed a large marine biodiversity database, including vertebrates, invertebrates, and algae, totalling over 4 million records. We used the generalized dissimilarity model (GDM) to identify variables most related to species composition variations and map beta‐diversity variations. We employed an unsupervised classifier for community regionalization. To test if the ecoregion regionalization boundaries are corroborated by species distribution data, we used the Sørensen index. To assess if ecoregions correspond to environmental units, we checked if areas had distinct environmental conditions using a PCA of 134 marine environmental variables.ResultsThe GDM explained a high variation in species composition, 61% in the complete database. Analysing vertebrates, invertebrates and algae separately also yielded relatively high results: 46%, 54%, and 33%, respectively. Coastal areas differed from open sea areas in composition. Environmental variables combined better explained beta diversity than isolated variables. The regionalization based on GDM was not congruent with ecoregion boundaries. Moreover, ecoregions showed no distinction in species composition or environmental conditions.Main ConclusionsThis study's regionalization is crucial for marine biodiversity conservation, focusing on understanding species composition patterns between coastal and open sea areas to develop tailored conservation strategies. Despite sampling limitations, the study advances marine biogeography knowledge by analysing over 4 million species records and 134 environmental variables. This comprehensive approach enhances understanding marine species distribution and diversity and aiding the development of effective conservation measures.

Time-Course Metabolomic Analysis: Production of Betaine Structural Analogs by Fungal Fermentation of Seaweed

Betaine structural analogs are compounds characterized by the presence of positive and negative charges in a single molecule and have been reported to have physiological properties, such as anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, we performed a metabolomic analysis of metabolite composition changes during the fermentation of Neopyropia yezoensis, an edible red alga, with Aspergillus oryzae for 72 h. The results indicated that three specific betaine structural analogs (betaine, stachydrine, and carnitine) exhibited significant changes in production by the end of the 72 h fermentation period. Time-course analysis suggested that betaine was generated from the precursor choline at 12–24 h during the late stage of fungal growth, while stachydrine was generated from the precursor-related compound glutamic acid at 48–72 h during the sporulation stage. However, the contribution of the precursor lysine to the increased production of carnitine during the 12–72 h period was unclear. This study provides useful information on the efficient production of betaine structural analogs by the fungal fermentation of seaweed as well as various other food materials.

Biosorption of anionic and cationic azo dye onto red macro alga: Determination of the significant variables using resolution V fractional factorial design

Naturally inspired biosorbent from macro algae species are favored because of its excellent biosorptive capability and low cost. The present investigation reports the potential of red macro-alga, E. spinosum as a biosorbent to remove both anionic and cationic azo dyes, namely Acid Yellow 17 (AY17) and Methylene Blue (MB) from aqueous solution. A resolution V fractional factorial design (2v5-1) analysis was employed to study the main effects and interaction of variables on the biosorption process. Factorial matrix with five variables; pH (2–12), dosage (0.4–2 g/L), initial concentration (50–200 mg/L), contact time (5–120 min) and temperature (30-50 °C) at two levels were conducted in batch study. Pareto charts and ANOVA (within 95% confidence level) were applied to examine the relationship and significance between independent variables and their interactions. A regression model with R2AY17 = 0.9998 and R2MB = 0.9995 was implemented to fit the experimental data. The results obtained indicated that the most significant variables that affected biosorption process were initial concentration and the dosage of the dyes. Experimental screenings are crucial in optimization studies. The remarkable performance of E. spinosum as biosorbent to absorb both dyes shows a great potential to be implemented for local marine macro alga as an alternative. Resource for biosorption process.

Notes from the past show how local variability can stymie urchins and the rise of the reds in the Gulf of Maine

AbstractThe impacts of global change—from shifts in climate to overfishing to land use change—can depend heavily on local abiotic context. Building an understanding of how to downscale global change scenarios to local impacts is often difficult, however, and requires historical data across large gradients of variability. Such data are often not available—particularly in peer reviewed or gray literature. However, these data can sometimes be gleaned from casual records of natural history—field notebooks, data sheet marginalia, course notes, and more. Here, we provide an example of one such approach for the Gulf of Maine, as we seek to understand how environmental context can influence local outcomes of region‐wide shifts in subtidal community structure. We explore a decade of hand‐drawn algal cover maps around Appledore Island made by Dr. Art Borror while teaching at the Shoals Marine Lab. Appledore's steep wave exposure gradient—from exposed to the open ocean to fully protected—provides a living laboratory to test interactions between global change and local conditions. We then recreate Borror's methods two and a half decades later. We show that overfishing‐driven urchin outbreaks in the 1980s were slowed or stopped by wave exposure and benthic topography. Similarly, local variation appears to have curtailed current invasions by filamentous red algae. Last, some formerly dominant kelps have disappeared over the past 40 years—an observation verified by subtidal surveys. Global change is altering life in the seas around us. While underutilized, solid natural history observations stand as a key resource for us to begin to understand how global change will translate to the heterogeneous mosaic of life in a future Gulf of Maine and other ecosystems around the world.

Biomarker signatures and depositional environment of ore-bearing black shale in the Luishia Cu–Co deposit, Democratic Republic of Congo: Implications for regional copper mineralization

The Central African Copperbelt is a globally important sediment-hosted stratiform copper cluster, with regional Cu–Co deposits controlled by Neoproterozoic rift basin. Ore formation in the Copperbelt involves multiple stages of mineralization during diagenesis, basin inversion, and collisional orogeny. Understanding the depositional environment of ore-hosting rocks is crucial for revealing the geological settings and pre-orogenic ore genesis. This paper presents a biomarker study focusing on the ore-bearing black shale in the Luishia Cu–Co deposit, Democratic Republic of Congo. The research investigates thermal maturity, source, and depositional environment of organic matter through rock organic carbon and pyrolysis analysis, chloroform bitumen “A” group component analysis, as well as saturated hydrocarbon gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. The results indicate significant thermal maturation of organic matter in Luishia black shale. Bacteria are identified as the primary source of organic matter followed by red algae and green algae. The sedimentary environment is characterized by a restricted rift basin under shallow marine conditions with a stratified water column. The processes of bacterial sulphate reduction (BSR) and thermochemical sulphate reduction (TSR) significantly influence the mineralization during diagenesis and basin inversion, respectively. Enhanced thermal maturity promotes methane generation which plays a role in reducing anhydrite and subsequently precipitating ore minerals. The findings have important implications for regional exploration strategies.